Modelling color changes in wood during conventional drying

La coloration du bois pendant le séchage diminue la qualité et la valeur du produit fini, augmente les coûts de production et diminue le rendement matière. C’est un processus complexe qui est difficile à prédire. Le développement d'un modèle de changement de couleur du bois en cours de séchage peut donc favoriser l’économie de temps et de matière première. Deux séries de six essais ont été effectuées dans cette étude sur l’aubier du bouleau à papier et de l'érable à sucre afin de mesurer le changement de couleur du bois pendant un séchage conventionnel à trois niveaux différents de température sèche (40, 60 et 80°C) et deux niveaux de dépression au thermomètre humide (4 et 15°C). Les données de ces essais ont conduit au développement de modèles statistiques du changement de l’indice de clarté L* pour chaque espèce, séparément pour la surface et l’intérieur du bois, en utilisant des modèles de régression mixte avec la planche considérée comme effet aléatoire. Deux types de modèles ont été développés, soit en considérant les trois températures sèches (40, 60 et 80°C) d’une part, et les deux températures les plus élevées seulement (60 et 80°C) d’autre part. Finalement, les modèles statistiques furent combinés à un modèle existant de transfert de masse et de chaleur (DRYTEK) afin de simuler les changements de couleur pour tout autre programme spécifique de séchage à moyenne température. Les paramètres du modèle numérique de transfert de masse et de chaleur ont été mesurés préalablement pour les deux espèces. Les modèles statistiques et les modèles intégrés de changement de couleur furent enfin validés en réalisant pour chaque espèce un essai indépendant de séchage à une température sèche de 70°C et à une dépression au thermomètre humide de 10°C. Les résultats des essais de mesure de couleur aux températures de 60 et 80°C montrent que les valeurs de L* des deux espèces à l’intérieur de la planche diminuent rapidement avec une diminution de la teneur en humidité (M) jusqu’au point de saturation des fibres. Par la suite, les valeurs de L* diminuent lentement jusqu'à 15 - 25% M où celles-ci peuvent même commencer à augmenter. Le changement de couleur du bois à 40°C est très faible ou inexistant. Les valeurs de L* à la surface de la planche diminuent également de façon substantielle avec la diminution de la teneur en humidité, exception faite à 40°C. Pour l’ensemble de l’épaisseur du bois, plus élevée est la température de séchage, plus grande est la diminution des valeurs de L*. Réciproquement, plus forte est la dépression au thermomètre humide, plus faible est le changement de couleur à une température sèche donnée. Les composantes a* et b* montrent un comportement similaire à L* par rapport aux variations de la température de séchage et de la dépression au thermomètre humide. Par contre, les valeurs de a* et b* augmentent avec la teneur en humidité au lieu de diminuer. La comparaison des valeurs de L* obtenues des modèles statistiques de prévision avec les valeurs de L* mesurées expérimentalement à partir des essais de validation montre une très forte similarité des deux types de résultats dans le cas de l'érable de sucre. Pour le bouleau à papier, un écart important est observé entre les valeurs prédites et mesurées au-dessus du point de saturation des fibres. La relation teneur en humidité-potentiel hydrique mesurée expérimentalement montre que le potentiel hydrique augmente avec la température à une teneur en humidité donnée. Pour les deux espèces, un plateau caractéristique est observé dans la gamme de potentiels hydriques entre -2000 et -6000 J kg-1. Tel que prévu, la conductivité hydrique effective augmente avec le contenu d'humidité et la température, et elle est plus élevée en direction radiale qu’en direction tangentielle. Le coefficient de transfert convectif de masse augmente avec la température de séchage à une dépression au thermomètre humide donnée, alors qu’il diminue avec la dépression au thermomètre humide à une température de séchage donnée. Finalement, la comparaison des mesures de changement de couleur au cours des essais de validation avec les valeurs simulées à partir des modèles statistiques combinés au modèle de transfert de masse et de chaleur montre une évolution des valeurs de L* très similaire dans le cas de l’érable à sucre. À l’instar des modèles statistiques, un écart important existe entre les deux types de résultats pour le bouleau à papier dans la première partie du séchage.Wood discoloration during drying is diminishing quality and value of end product, increasing production costs and decreasing yield. Wood discoloration during drying is a complex process which is difficult to predict. The development of a wood color model can save material and time by simulating color changes for any specific drying conditions. A set of six experiments were performed in this study on paper birch and sugar maple sapwood to measure wood color changes during conventional drying at three different levels of dry-bulb temperature (40, 60 and 80˚C) and two levels of wet-bulb depression (4 and 15˚C). Statistical wood color models for lightness L* were proposed for each species, both for the wood surface and through the board thickness, to predict the wood color changes during conventional drying using mixed regression models with the board sample taken as the random effect. Three temperature (3T) (40, 60 and 80˚C) and two temperature (2T) (60 and 80˚C) models were developed. Finally, the statistical wood color models were integrated into an existing heat and mass transfer numerical model (DRYTEK) in order to simulate, for any conventional dynamic wood drying schedule, wood color changes on the surface and through the board thickness. The numerical model parameters (moisture content-water potential relationship, effective water conductivity, convective mass transfer coefficient) were experimentally determined for paper birch and sugar maple at the three drying temperatures. Both types of wood color predictive models were then validated by means of an independent drying run conducted at the dry-bulb temperature of 70°C and the wet-bulb depression of 10oC. The results of the wood color measurement tests show that at the dry-bulb temperatures of 60 and 80˚C, the L* values of both species below the surface decrease rapidly with a decrease of the moisture content (M) from the green state to the fiber saturation point. Then, the L* values decrease slowly until about 15 - 25% M where they may even start to increase. Wood color changes at 40˚C were found very small, either positive or negative. The L* values at the surface also decrease as the moisture content decreases and, except for the temperature of 40oC, the changes in color increase with the drying temperature. In general, the higher is the dry-bulb temperature, the greater is the decrease of the L* values through the board thickness. Conversely, the higher is the wet-bulb depression at a given dry-bulb temperature, the smaller are the color changes. The color components a* and b* follow a similar behavior as L* with respect to drying temperature and wet bulb depression. However, contrarily to the L* values, the a* and b* values increase with a decrease of M. The comparison of the predicted L* values obtained from the statistical models with the experimental L* values obtained from the validation tests shows a very good agreement between both types of results in the case of sugar maple. For paper birch, a fairly large discrepancy is observed during the first part of drying between predicted and experimental results but a better agreement is found at the end of drying. The results of the moisture content-water potential relationship determination show that the water potential increases with temperature at a given moisture content. A characteristic plateau was found in the water potential range of -2,000 and -6,000 J kg-1. As expected, the effective water conductivity increases with moisture content and temperature and it is higher in the radial direction than in the tangential direction. The convective mass transfer coefficient increases with dry-bulb temperature at a given wet-bulb depression, whereas it decreases with an increase of web-bulb depression at a given dry-bulb temperature. Finally, the comparison of the wood color measurements during the validation tests on paper birch and sugar maple with the wood color values simulated with the integrated statistical/numerical models shows a very good agreement between both types of results in the case of sugar maple. As it was observed for the statistical models, the fit was poorer in the case of paper birch, especially above the fiber saturation point where the initial moisture content seems to be an important factor in the color changes behavior of wood during drying

Spatial variation in aragonite saturation state and the influencing factors in Jiaozhou Bay, China

Both natural processes and human activities affect seawater calcium carbonate saturation state (Ωarag), while the mechanisms are still far from being clearly understood. This study analysed the seawater surface Ωarag during summer and winter in Jiaozhou Bay (JZB), China, based on two cruises observations performed in January and June 2017. The ranges of Ωarag values were 1.55~2.92 in summer and 1.62~2.15 in winter. Regression analyses were conducted to identify the drivers of the change of Ωarag distribution, and then the relative contributions of temperature, mixing processes and biological processes to the spatial differences in Ωarag were evaluated by introducing the difference between total alkalinity (TA) and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) as a proxy for Ωarag. The results showed that biological processes were the main factor affecting the spatial differences in Ωarag, with relative contributions of 70% in summer and 50% in winter. The contributions of temperature (25% in summer and 20% in winter) and the mixing processes (5% in summer and 30% in winter) were lower. The increasing urbanization in offshore areas can further worsen acidification, therefore environmental protection in both offshore and onshore is needed

Ceiling-fan-integrated air conditioning: Airflow and temperature characteristics of a sidewall-supply jet interacting with a ceiling fan

Ceiling-Fan-Integrated Air Conditioning (CFIAC) is a proposed system that can greatly increase buildings’ cooling efficiency. In it, terminal supply ducts and diffusers are replaced by vents/nozzles, jetting supply air toward ceiling fans that serve to mix and distribute it within the room. Because of the fans’ air movement, the system provides comfort at higher room temperatures than in conventional commercial/ institutional/retail HVAC. We have experimentally evaluated CFIAC in a test room. This paper covers the distributions of air-speed, temperature, and calculated comfort level throughout the room. Two subsequent papers report tests of human subject comfort and ventilation effectiveness in the same experimental conditions. The room’s supply air emerged from a high-sidewall vent directed toward a ceiling fan on the jet centerline; we also tested this same jet on a fan located off to the side of the jet. Primary variables are: ceiling fan flow volumes in downward and upward directions, supply air volume, and room-vs-supply temperature difference. Velocity, turbulence, and temperature distributions are presented for vertical and horizontal transects of the room. The occupied zone is then evaluated for velocity and temperature non-uniformity, and for comfort as predicted by the ASHRAE Standard 55 elevated air speed method. We show that temperatures are well-mixed and uniform across the room for all of the fan-on configurations, for fans both within or out of the supply jet centerline. The ceiling fan flow dominates the CFIAC airflow, and even though non-uniform is capable of providing comfortable conditions throughout the occupied area of the room

Electroacupuncture Suppresses Discrete Cue-Evoked Heroin-Seeking and Fos Protein Expression in the Nucleus Accumbens Core in Rats

Relapse to drug seeking was studied using a rodent model of reinstatement induced by exposure to drug-related cues. Here, we used intravenous drug self-administration procedures in rats to further investigate the beneficial effects of electroacupuncture (EA) on heroin-seeking behavior in a reinstatement model of relapse. We trained Sprague-Dawley rats to nose-poke for i.v. heroin either daily for 4 h or 25 infusions for 14 consecutive days. Then the rats were abstinent from heroin for two weeks. 2 Hz EA stimulation was conducted once daily for 14 days during heroin abstinence. We tested these animals for contextual and discrete cue-induced reinstatement of active responses. We also applied immunohistochemistry to detect Fos-positive nuclei in the nucleus accumbens (NACc) core and shell after reinstatement test. We found that active responses elicited by both contextual cues and discrete cues were high in the rats trained with heroin than in saline controls. EA treatment significantly reduced active responses elicited by discrete cues. EA stimulation attenuated Fos expression in the core but not the shell of the NACc. Altogether, these results highlight the therapeutic benefit of EA in preventing relapse to drug addiction

Aboveground Biomass and Soil Moisture as Affected by Short-Term Grazing Exclusion in Eastern Alpine Meadows of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China

Heavy grazing substantially influences grassland vegetation and animal nutrition on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau (Guo et al. 2003). Degradation is characterized by a reduction in vegetation height, reduced ground cover decrease in species diversity (Wang et al. 2007). The objective of this study was to determine the effects of short-term exclusion from grazing on aboveground herbage, forage nutritive value, and soil moisture in an alpine meadow in the eastern zone of the plateau. Three farms, applying different intensity of grazing over the summer months, were compared